Scott Hedley                                       Exercise Science ISU                          January 14, 2014

Nutrition of Power Athletes Versus Endurance Athletes

Abstract:

            The purpose of this independent study unit is to demonstrate the comparisons/differences in the nutritional habits of two different types of professional athletes: ice hockey players (the power athletes) and long distance runners (the endurance athletes).

Figure 1: Anaheim Ducks forward Mike Brown - an NHL ice hockey player [http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Mike_Brown_(ice_hockey).jpg]

Figure 2: Elite Kenyan runners running with their national flag [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/energetics-research/uploads/media/Energetics%20-%20DLL/kenyan-runners.jpg]

Chapter 1 - The Two Energy Systems and How to Nutritionally Support Them:

Section 1.1 - The Two Energy Systems:

            An elite level ice hockey player makes his/ her living by skating up and down an ice surface at top speed and, while doing so, makes plays both with and without the puck to try and put the puck in the opposing team's net.  This is all done within a fast-paced hockey shift that typically lasts approximately 45 seconds for a player [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/players/10/04/workout1010/].  Every player plays numerous shifts throughout the hockey game and spends time recovering on the team bench between shifts.  An elite level hockey player is a power athlete.

            To sustain these high-intensity game speeds, a hockey player will derive much of his/ her energy from his/ her anaerobic lactic system by means of glycolysis [Temertzoglou & Challen 86].  A hockey player will have a considerably high percentage of fast-twitch type 2A muscle fibers in his/ her body, allowing for more power and glycolysis to be used within a shorter period of time [Temertzoglou & Challen 86]. 

            Glycolysis is an energy pathway whereby an athlete can engage in high-intensity activity for up to 1-3 minutes [Temertzoglou & Challen 84].  Through the chemical equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 2ADP + 2P_i → 2C₃H₆O₃ + 2ATP in the presence of water, one molecule of glucose is used to create two molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is used by the muscles as energy [Temertzoglou & Challen 84].  Glycolysis is not a particularly efficient energy pathway compared to the molecular activity in the mitochondria of the cell [Temertzoglou & Challen 84].  In the latter case, molecular activity is used for the aerobic energy pathway of cellular respiration and yields about 18 times more ATP per glucose molecule [Temertzoglou & Challen 85].  Glycolysis also produces a potentially harmful byproduct of lactic acid [Temertzoglou & Challen 84].  The byproduct is harmful in the sense that it actually impairs muscle movement if it accumulates in too vast a quantity for the body to remove, and it can also damage the muscle if not removed by the body within a short enough period of time through light exercise recovery methods [Temertzoglou & Challen 84].  However, glycolysis is useful for high intensity energy output for a relatively significant amount of time, compared to the ATP-PC energy pathway used in the anaerobic alactic system, which only gives very high intensity energy for up to 15 seconds [Temertzoglou & Challen 83].  Glycolysis within the anaerobic lactic system is the most useful to elite ice hockey player athletes [Temertzoglou & Challen 86].

Figure 3: An illustration of how glucose is used for energy through means of glycolysis [http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch09/09_08GlycolysisEnergy.jpg]

            An elite level distance runner makes his/ her living by running significant distances as fast as he/ she can in the form of a race to the finish.  Example distances of these races are Olympic racing distances of five and ten kilometers, as well as marathons [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/347240/long-distance-running].  Marathons are approximately 42 kilometers in length [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/347240/long-distance-running].  An elite level distance runner will run for the entirety of the race at a pace which he/ she can sustain for that period of time.  An elite level distance runner is an endurance athlete.

            To sustain a continuous running pace for the entire race, an elite level distance runner will derive much of his/ her energy from his/ her aerobic system through the means of cellular respiration [Temertzoglou & Challen 85-86].  Elite level distance runners will have a considerably high percentage of slow-twitch type 1 muscle fibers in his/ her body to allow for more sustainable energy to be created from the glucose used  [Temertzoglou & Challen 85-86].

            Cellular respiration is an energy pathway where an elite athlete can engage in and sustain intense activity for over 90 seconds  [Temertzoglou & Challen 85].  Through the chemical equation C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 36ADP + 36P_i → 6CO₂ + 36ATP + 6H₂O, one molecule of glucose is used to create thirty-six molecules of ATP, which is very sustainable for lengthy periods of endurance exercise [Temertzoglou & Challen 85].  Cellular respiration is not useful for moments of very high or even high exercise intensities, but it is a very efficient and sustainable energy pathway [Temertzoglou & Challen 85].  As well, cellular respiration will break down lactate, if it is present in the body, before breaking down glucose which is particularly beneficial to athletes who do not want to suffer from the negative effects of lactic acid remaining in the muscle tissue [Temertzoglou & Challen 85].  Cellular respiration within the aerobic system is the most useful to elite distance running athletes [Temertzoglou & Challen 86].

Figure 4: An illustration of how glucose is used for energy through means of cellular respiration [http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/GB%201%20c16.jpg]

Section 1.2 - How to Nutritionally Support the Two Energy Systems:

            The three macronutrient groups which the body can derive energy from are carbohydrates, proteins, and fats (http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/handouts/macronutrients.htm).  These are essential for human life and ATP energy for human movement is created by these.  One gram of carbohydrates or protein will yield approximately four calories, while the same amount of fat will yield about nine calories.

            During an ice hockey game, ice hockey players will burn mostly carbohydrates, then fats, followed by a potentially small percentage of the body's protein, through the glycolysis energy pathway [Temertzoglou & Challen 87].  Jesse Demers, the strength and conditioning coach of the New York Islanders, claims that NHL players require a diet consisting of "a 4:1 carbohydrate-to-protein ratio to minimize muscle breakdown during the season" (http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml). As well, the number of calories the elite ice hockey player needs will depend on his activity level.  Someone who plays 25 minutes a game will require more calories to maintain his bodyweight than someone on the team who plays less than 10 minutes.  Demers says that "Players who log 20 to 25 minutes per night [playing NHL ice hockey] can easily use the same number of calories in a game that an average person would need to get through an entire day [2,0000 - 2,5000 kcals]" and that these same players would need to consume 50 grams of carbohydrates and 15 grams of protein post-game just to maintain and recover that body weight.

            As for pre-game meals, there is a general consensus around the hockey world that the bulk of the meal should consist of complex carbohydrates with a source of protein [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml].  More specifically, the tried-and-true preference of many professional ice hockey players is the chicken and pasta pre-game meal [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBTUz8qCk-4].  When the pre-game meal is eaten varies depending on the age and skill level of the ice hockey player [http://www.usahockeymagazine.com/article/2008-09/you-are-what-you-eat].  USA Hockey Magazine claims that a young hockey player should eat his/ her pre-game meal one to two hours before the start of his/ her game, depending on the size of the meal, to allow for proper digestion of the nutrients and for peak performance from the nutrients to be expended by the body throughout the hockey game.  Other sources, however, argue that the pre-game meal should be eaten two to four hours before and five to seven hours before the start of the game, with a small carbohydrate and fluids snack closer to game time to eliminate any hunger pains which may be present (http://www.playyourgame.com/moreenergy.html) (http://media.powerbar.com/playbooks/Hockey_Playbook_CANADA_032911.pdf).  This, generally, is the case for professional ice hockey player athletes, as their entire day is scheduled around when the time of the game is played.

 Figure 5: Eating pasta (a complex carbohydrate) before a hockey game [http://www.usahockeymagazine.com/article/2008-09/you-are-what-you-eat]

            The post-game meal for the athlete consists of nutrition that the ice hockey player's body requires post-game for muscle maintenance and recovery [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml].  The meal will be approximately a 4:1 ratio of carbohydrates to protein during the season, for muscle maintenance and recovery, while this ratio may only be 2:1 or even 1:1 carbohydrates to protein at the start of the off-season (summer) for the athletes.  The reason for this ratio shift is that elite ice hockey players are more focused on weight-lifting intensive exercise routines in the off-season, so that they can be as strong or stronger for the upcoming ice hockey regular season in the fall [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml].  When weight-lifting during the off-season, ice hockey player athletes of the NHL are often training their ATP-PC anaerobic alactic system as well as their glycolysis anaerobic lactic system to train different components of their game [Temertzoglou & Challen 83].  This is why ice hockey player athletes would eat so much more protein in comparison to their carbohydrate intake during the off-season than they would during the season: to build up and strengthen their muscles for the upcoming ice hockey season.

            Both before and after the game, water  is taken by the athlete to ensure that all bodily systems are properly hydrated and therefore working smoothly and efficiently [http://www.hockeyot.com/fluid-electrolyte-replacement/].  This is especially true for cardiac output.  If there is not enough water in the blood of the athlete, the heart will tire more quickly from having to expend more effort and energy to try and deliver nutrients to the rest of the body through the bloodstream.  When the heart is tired, the athlete is tired and therefore performance will decrease.  Over the course of an ice hockey game, the athlete can lose up to 2% of his/ her weight in water weight.  Therefore, it is crucial that the athlete is well hydrated prior to, during, and after the game, so that nutrients can be delivered throughout the body easily and effectively to maintain and improve the performance of the hockey player during the hockey game.  To be the most successful, ice hockey player athletes will stay hydrated at all times throughout the week and day leading up to his/ her hockey game.  Any time the athlete is not hydrated, his/ her body will depend upon his/ her own water stores within the body for hydration, which will lead to poor performance during competition.

            During a long distance running race, the body will burn a high amount of calories in the form of ATP energy through the cellular respiration energy pathway [Temertzoglou & Challen 86].  Like ice hockey, carbohydrates are the first macronutrient to be burned and used as fuel for the body [Temertzoglou & Challen 87] .  This is followed by fats and then proteins are burned in extreme circumstances where the competition exceeds 2 hours in length [Temertzoglou & Challen 87].  Unlike for ice hockey, using the body's protein stores (in the muscles) is more of a factor during long distance running competitions, since the running competitions can be very long without any significant chance to refuel during that time.  Therefore, it is important that the long distance running athlete has consumed a sufficient amount of calories in the time leading up to his/ her race [http://www.mayoclinic.org/carbohydrate-loading/art-20048518].  As well as keeping properly hydrated in the time leading up to the race, long distance running athletes will also eat an excess amount of complex carbohydrates in the days leading up to the race.  This is also known as "carbo-loading".  This ensures that the athlete's glycogen stores in the muscles are more than sufficient.  This is very important since a large percentage of the athlete's energy will come from the energy already stored in his/ her muscles, rather than from the food recently consumed.

            In an article written by Owen Anderson, Ph.D., Anderson closely analyses the diet of arguably the best long distance running athletes in the world - the Kenyan runners of Rift Valley.  In his study, Anderson found that the elite Kenyan runners studied do not do anything radically different in their daily nutrition routine than what Western world nutritional science has already discovered.  An average of 76.5% of the Kenyans studied obtained their daily calories from carbohydrates, 13.1% from fats, and 10.4% from proteins [http://www.active.com/running/articles/eating-practices-of-the-best-endurance-athletes-in-the-world?page=3].  While the Kenyan athletes did consume a high amount of refined sugars in their daily diet, it was to their advantage, as it helped quickly deliver energy to their bodies' depleted glycogen stores.  What was notable was that there was a lack of processed foods in the diet of these Kenyan athletes, which supports the view of those from the ice hockey world, such as Gary Roberts and Jesse Demers, that eating wholesome foods as part of an athlete's diet has a beneficial effect on athletic performance [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml] [http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/41223-Gary-Roberts-The-importance-of-nutrition-in-hockey.html].

Section 1.3 - Foods Which Give the Best Nutritional Return to the Athlete:

            It is recommended and praised by both dieticians and former athletes that wholesome foods are the most beneficial for athletes when it comes to energy return for athletic performance [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml] [http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/41223-Gary-Roberts-The-importance-of-nutrition-in-hockey.html].  Examples of these wholesome foods high in a part of the macronutrient trio are:

Carbohydrates	Proteins	Fats
·         Fruits ·         Vegetables ·         Pasta ·         Rice ·         Sports Drinks ·         Cereals ·         Breads	·         Dairy Products ·         Meats ·         Eggs ·         Nut Butters ·         Tofu	·         Nuts and Seeds ·         Oils ·         High Fat Dairy Products ·         Nut Butters

["Canada's Food Guide"] [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml] [http://www.active.com/running/articles/eating-practices-of-the-best-endurance-athletes-in-the-world?page=3]

Chapter 2 - Example Food Plan of the Athletes Then and Now:

Section 2.1 - Example Workout and Nutrition Schedules of the Athletes:

            The research for ice hockey players in this ISU was done on players in the National Hockey League.  As well, the ice hockey player workout schedule of the example athlete is an example of one of his summer workouts during the off-season, when ice hockey players are training for the NHL regular season's start in late summer/ fall with an aim to be as good or better than they were in the previous season [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml].  This is because of the regularity of these off-season workouts versus the in-season games and other workouts [http://islanders.nhl.com/club/news.htm?id=535997].  While there are set days that the National Hockey League professional athletes will work out during the summer, their workouts during the season depend on numerous factors that all correlate to when their next game is.  For example, if the ice hockey player's team is playing the next day, there may or may not be a workout.  If the team does not have a game for another three or four days, then there will be another workout the next day and/ or the day afterwards to ensure that the ice hockey player athlete can at least maintain his muscle mass and strength. 

            Jerome Iginla spent his time during the 2004-05 NHL lockout training as if it was the summer off-season [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/players/10/04/workout1010/].  With the Calgary Flames' Strength and Conditioning Coach, Rich Hesketh, Iginla trained through intensive workouts meant to build speed, explosiveness, and endurance.  Some examples of what he did during his training was foot speed work with the rope ladders, heavy rock heaving, hurdle jumping, and the "wood chop" where he did lunges while extending a 35-pound-plate in various regions around his  body for instability.  While doing this off-season training, Iginla took in 4500 calories daily, according to the article in Sports Illustrated Magazine.  His daily nutrition plan consisted of six meals and he never went more than two waking hours without eating.  As part of his nutrition plan, Iginla consumed a high amount of protein, so that his body had the tools it needed to repair and build muscle at a faster rate which allowed Iginla to train at a greater frequency [http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/030811p40.shtml].

 Figure 6: Jerome Iginla performing the "wood chop" [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/players/10/04/workout1010/]

           

            Iginla's nutrition plan appeared as so:

1st Breakfast (Before Training)	- A bowl of raisin bran
2nd Breakfast (After Training)	- Protein shake (of blueberries, a banana, 1% milk, protein powder, and peanut butter)
Lunch	- 2 Buffalo Burgers (on bun with lettuce and tomato)
Afternoon Snack	- Protein Bar and Fruit
Dinner	- Fish, white rice, green beans, and protein bar
Night-time Snack	- Protein powder with Water

  [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2005/players/10/04/workout1010/]

            The professional long distance running athletes observed were the ten Kenyans analyzed during the experiment by Owen Anderson [http://www.active.com/running/articles/eating-practices-of-the-best-endurance-athletes-in-the-world?page=1].  They ate five meals a day, during the experiment.  Those meals were at 8am, 10am, 1pm, 4pm, and 7pm (never more than three hours apart).  These Kenyan long distance running athletic diets, unlike Jerome Iginla's high protein diet during his off-season training regimen, were high in carbohydrates.  86% of their nutrition was plant-based, versus the 14% of their animal-based daily diet.  70% of the Kenyan runner daily diet was from four food sources: ugali, sugar, rice, and milk.  Ugali is the national dish of Kenya and is composed of "well-cooked, corn-meal paste that's molded into balls and dipped into other foods for flavoring".

Figure 7: Ugali - a popular dish in Kenyan culture [http://s3-media2.ak.yelpcdn.com/bphoto/ITbytXVFJ321oDhcUJwiWA/l.jpg]

Section 2.2 - Example Nutrition and Workout Schedule of the Athletes Years Ago:

            Information in this section was impossible to find in detail, unlike the previous section.  However, this lack of information was of a significance, as it has only been in about the last decade where those in the ice hockey world began taking nutrition seriously and gained the knowledge of its direct correlation and benefits for sport performance (http://www.thehockeynews.com/articles/41223-Gary-Roberts-The-importance-of-nutrition-in-hockey.html).  Former ice hockey players, such as Gary Roberts, are great examples of the beneficial impact of nutrition.  He was forced to first retire from the NHL at age 30, from injuries.  It was after his retirement that he started living a healthier lifestyle from a nutritional standpoint and was able to make it back to the NHL where he would end up playing 21 years total.  Now, he embodies healthy nutrition and is an off-season trainer to many well known NHL athletes, such as Steven Stamkos of the Tampa Bay Lightning and Cody Hodgson of the Buffalo Sabres (http://www.fitnessinstitute.com/gary-roberts-hpc/grhpc-video/).

Figure 8: Gary Roberts overlooking Steven Stamkos during his off-season training [http://www.fitnessinstitute.com/gary-roberts-hpc/] 

           

            Bruce Boudreau, a former coach of the Washington Capitals, said, as a player himself, that "when we were younger, the talk was pasta the day of the game and steak the night before the game.  Things have changed. That was about as basic as it was." (http://voices.washingtonpost.com/dcsportsbog/2010/07/caps_developmental_nutrition.html?wprss=dcsportsbog).

Figure 9: Bruce Boudreau is now coach of the Anaheim Ducks of the NHL [http://www.russianmachineneverbreaks.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/bruce-boudreau-tb-series-playoffs.jpeg]

            In countries, such as Kenya, where many successful long distance running athletes appear from, the culture present has geared the runners there for success [http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/the-running-blog/video/2013/jul/02/kenyans-best-distance-runners-video].  Not only does the food they have been eating over the years help them in their training (namely the ugali), but so does the Rift Valley's great altitude, the genetics of the native people, their optimism, and their relaxed lifestyle.  The food for long distance running athletes in Kenya has not changed significantly over the years for the Kenyans, as they have been very successful on the diet they have already [http://www.runaddicts.net/health-nutrition/secrets-from-the-savannah-what-the-diets-of-elite-kenyan-runners-teach-us-about-optimal-nutrition] [http://www.active.com/running/articles/eating-practices-of-the-best-endurance-athletes-in-the-world?page=2]. 

            While it proved fruitless to locate information about the past diets of elite long distance runner athletes, studies done about running nutrition in recent years demonstrate that the Western world society is learning more about what will and will not help the bodies of runners during their training, which shows an increase in scientific knowledge over our running predecessors.  For example, a study from a sports clinic in Finland discovered through research that the phosphoric acid in drinking soda will decrease one's chance of bone recovery after running, which in turn leads to a greater risk for stress fracture [http://runnersconnect.net/running-nutrition-articles/foods-that-increse-your-risk-for-stress-fractures/].

Chapter 3 - My Experience with Nutrition, as a Recreational Ice Hockey and Long Distance Running Athlete:

            I, the author of this ISU, have recreational level experience as an athlete in both ice hockey and long distance running.  For the greatest success in these sports, I have followed similar tactics to those explained within this paper.

            For ice hockey, I have had the greatest success while playing fully hydrated and having eaten a significantly sized nutritious meal 1-1.5 hours in advance.  For the most success while playing, I consume whole foods of mostly carbohydrates (through complex carbohydrates and vegetables) as well as a source of protein.  Examples of these meals include:

·         Pasta, chicken, and green beans

·         Rice, salmon, and fresh peppers

·         Potatoes, tuna, and carrots

To hydrate during the meal, I will drink water and a small glass of milk.  When I have eaten two hours (or more) in advance of an ice hockey game, I would eat a banana about 15 minutes before stepping on to the ice. 

            I sip on a sports beverage, as well as water, throughout the ice hockey game. 

            Post-game, I eat the same meal as pre-game as well as drinking water and 1L of chocolate milk.  Chocolate milk  is a source of hydration, protein, and fast absorbing carbohydrates [http://www.rechargewithmilk.ca/workout_recovery].  This is perfect for muscle recovery after an ice hockey game.

            For long distance running (I generally run between five and ten kilometers), I have the most success under similar nutritional circumstances as I do for playing an ice hockey game.  Being well hydrated prior to playing is important, as well as eating a significantly sized meal about two hours in advance.  I eat the same type of food before and after long distance running as I do before and after playing an ice hockey game.  What differentiates is the percentage increase of complex carbohydrates I eat during the meal before and after running long distance.

Conclusion:

            It was concluded that, while the power and endurance athletes in this ISU differed in their energy output during exercise, both ate very similar foods prior to and post competition for the greatest chance of success.  Carbohydrates were the main fuel source for these athletes.  The sport activities deriving energy through glycolysis and cellular respiration required a difference in timing pre-competition as to when to eat the nutrients, as well as slightly different amounts of the various macronutrients post-competition.  Both athlete types ate healthy wholesome foods, as well as staying well hydrated, for the greatest chance of success within their sport. 

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            Disclaimer: In-text citations and URLs were only sourced once per paragraph.  If the source of a piece of information within a paragraph is ambiguous, assume its source is from one already listed within the paragraph.

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URLs for Websites where only the picture was used:

·         http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Mike_Brown_(ice_hockey).jpg

·         http://www.abdn.ac.uk/energetics-research/uploads/media/Energetics%20-%20DLL/kenyan-runners.jpg

·         http://bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch09/09_08GlycolysisEnergy.jpg

·         http://s3-media2.ak.yelpcdn.com/bphoto/ITbytXVFJ321oDhcUJwiWA/l.jpg

·         http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/rburkett/GB%201%20c16.jpg

·         http://www.russianmachineneverbreaks.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/bruce-boudreau-tb-series-playoffs.jpeg